Psychological Theories in Business and Organisations

Psychological Theories in Business and OrganisationsLeadership and the Multiplier EffectThere is strong evidence that leader style is related to employee enjoyment. For prototype, charismatic leadinghip is strongly related to subordinate job satisfaction (DeGroot et al. 2000), and leader-member relationships is also strongly related to job satisfaction and organizational trueness (Gerstner and Day 1997). Likewise, trust in the leader is a strong predictor of satisfaction and commitment (Dirks and Ferrin 2002) as is the appropriate take of autonomy displayed by leaders (Baard et al. 2004). According to interrogation by Sy et al (2005) validatory managers be more accurate and careful in decision making as hale as beingness more personally effective and imbuing those around them with greater positivity too. Crucially, Kopelman et al (2006) suggest the positive leaders create upward emotional spirals which inspection and repair colleagues cope better with change. therefrom, i f there was one thing an boldness could do to foster engagement it would be to have flourishing leaders. Stated in the oppositeness counselling, the point seems more stark if it is the leaders who are disengaged then the organisation is very unlikely to flourish.Flourishing the sourceIn its simplest form, positive psychology is approximately accruing a body of knowledge that is useful to batch who want to live a good, happy and long life. Reflecting on the entirety of this teaching, it could be declared that positive psychology comprises much more than positive thinking solely that it perhaps starts with positive thinking.Further, just as an individualistics personal examine of being at their best reveals their potential, so the study of flourishing in an organisation reveals the highest potential of the whole organisation. Cameron et al (2003) suggest that excellence always exists, even in the most(prenominal) dysfunctional organisations. The secret lies in slantping into the source the positive core, the people caseing in higher levels of engagement, motivation and productivity.This opens up a deeper line of enquiry how does the organisation tap into this positive core? The debate surrounded by the sources of eudemonia and hedonism is, arguably, unnecessary. The research literature is rife with examples of where the two entwine. Indeed, pairing pleasurable emotions in the here and now (hedonic) with adaptative activities that depart sustain future happiness (eudemonic) is evolutions way of ensuring that humans engage in the behaviours necessary for our survival (deWall, 1996). Perhaps therefore, the distinction between the two should be about their roots.Flourishing at go is an umbrella sentiment that includes a large number of constructs ranging from transient moods and emotions at the person level to aggregate attitudes at the unit level. In the workplace, happiness is influenced by both short-lived events and conditions inherent in the task, job and organization. It is further complicated by influences at individual level such as personality and the fit between what the job/organization provides and the individuals expectations, needs and preferences. Understanding these contributors to happiness, together with recent research on volitional actions to improve happiness, offer some potential levers for improving happiness at work.Flourishing People Create Flourishing OrganisationsMasten (2001) describes flourishing as banausic magic, suggesting that it is available to everyone. It is alpha to note that the benefits of feeling good are not because such feelings allow individuals to play down, ignore of distort negative information. sooner positive affect leads people to be able to consider many aspects of a situation simultaneously, make evaluations and choose behaviours responsive to the situation. Gaffney (2011) suggests there are quatern elements of flourishing challenge, connectivity, autonomy and using ones valued competencies. Further, Gaffney suggests these core components are enhanced by what is termed a mental life, an alignment of an individuals thinking and feeling that are on the same wavelength. Gaffneys point is that it is easy to explain goals, purpose and values in a cognitive way. In many organisations, values posters adorn the walls. In my role as a trainer, I have had quite too many discussions with exasperated managers, paraphrased along the lines of They the employees dont get it They are not living by the values on the posters And herein lies the point to function at ones best one needs to feel a connection and however positive the organisational environment, however interesting the work and however transformational the leadership style, these will save increase the odds of engagement. True and long lasting engagement has an internal source which lies within an array of attitudinal choices and mental constructs created by the individual.It is hoped that most staff wi ll have experienced feelings of engagement. For some staff, these feelings arise circumstantially they are effectively waiting for the decline conditions in which to engage. The flourishing employees are less inclined to wait. Instead, they tap into a set of intentional strategies which allow them to take personal responsibility for feeling good. Further, these within person strategies, when written down, appear to be simple and straight-forward. wizard suspects that the biggest single ingredient highlighted by this study, that of consciously and deliberately choosing to be positive, stands out as common spirit. However this research has uncovered that such strategies are by no means common practice. It may be that one can become psychologically disconnected from ones best self. The busyness schedule and impediments of modern life (discussed in chapter 1) have resulted in a reactive approach to life rather than an introspective (inside-out) approach that is conducive to flouri shing.Just as the key to individual flourishing is to understand and put effort into function at our best, so it is with organisations. The traditional organisational focus has been on deficit management, eliminating weaknesses and solving problems. This is important, but flourishing organisations must go further and, according to Cameron (2013), they must focus on what is positively deviant, i.e., what is outstanding, what is already working and what is world class. In line with Cooperriders (2005) work on Appreciative Inquiry, this provides a dramatic falling out of focus.The Cult of HappinessWhat exactly is organisational grow? Cameron (2013) suggests it refers to taken for granted values, expectations, incarnate memories and implicit meanings that define an organisations core identicalness and behaviour. Thus, culture reflects the prevailing ideology that people carry inside their heads. It provides unwritten and usually wordless guidelines for what is acceptable and what is not. The wider point of creating an organisational culture conducive to flourishing is that an organisation cannot force an employee to be engaged. Thus, by implication, the suggestion is that the organisation alone cannot create a culture of engagement because engagement is partly an internal concept. Therefore if push motives such as forcing are out, it may be that pull motives such as allowing or encouraging are in.Being religious is associated with elevated happiness. In a survey of 163,000 people in 14 European countries, 84% of church goers rated as very satisfied with life compared with 77% of non-church goers (Inglehart, 1990). The suggestion is that religion provides a framework of meaning as well as a corporal identity and a reliable social network for people with like-minded views and values. Thus, ultimately, it is the strong social connections that provide happiness in a religious context. The result is the rather powerful effect whereby individuals give up their week ends to attend their place of workshop, for free. While religion was not born out as a major factor in happiness in this study, there exists a wider analogy. It may be that the challenge for organisational designers is to create a similar cohesiveness, akin to a spiritual al-Qaeda where, instead of religion, employees are bonded by a common purpose and/or pervading sense of why? The organisation creates a sense of community where high timber connections are the norm and where individual employees are playing to their strengths. In short, the challenge is to create a culture in which employees want to be part of something worth while and where engagement is not forced, but rather, it flows. Continuing the religious metaphor, it may be that this sense of higher purpose and internal buy-in is, indeed, a more enlightened way to create flourishing organisations.NeuroplasticityThe relatively stable basic affective state of happiness refers to the momentary level of happiness that an ind ividual typically experiences the individuals set point (Williams Thompson, 1993). The implication is that this component ensures that different individuals may experience different levels of happiness when all other factors are held constant. Although all individuals can experience a range of emotions at different intensities, there is a tendency for these to return to their idiosyncratic set point (Diener et al., 2006).Diener et al (2006) argue that ones happiness set point is determined by the individuals sense of identity which is in turn determined by their psychology. In short, most people think like the person they perceive themselves to be (e.g., victims get stuck in learned helplessness, winners have a winning mentality, confident people behave confidently, etc.) The question therefore arises, is it possible to change ones mental habits and/or ones sense of personal identity? The concept of neuro-plasticity (Goleman, et al, 2003) suggests the brain is always learning. Sie gel (2007) states that Where attention goes, neurons fire. And where neurons fire, they can re-wire (p. 291). This capacity for the brain to be reconfigured opens up the possibility for genuine and permanent personal changeIf ones brain has an element of neuroplasticity it may be that the set point is nothing more than a familiar point. It raises the possibility that with some mental readiness and a little effort, one may be able to alter ones normal or familiar level of happiness. In toll of this study, the NonH+ mean happiness is 6.77 (sd = 1.41, std error mean = 0.07) and the H+ mean is 8.29 (sd = 0.51, std error mean = 0.75). Thus, inquiring into the mental strategies of the H+ group and applying them to the NonH+ group could conceivably result in an increase in the set point of 22.5%. As argued in earlier chapters, the knock-on behavioural effects of such an increase would achieve significant duty results.BeliefsThis comment, taken from an H+ respondent, provides a succinct account of the main findings of the difference between the H+ and NonH+ respondents I see the world differently to them. (male, organisation W)Thus if reality depends, at least in part, on how one views it, it becomes less of a surprise that external circumstances account for only 10% of agree happiness (Lyubomirsky, Sheldon Schade 2005). Indeed, Lyubormirsky (2007) prefers the phrase creation or construction of happiness to the more popular pursuit of happiness since research shows that its in our power to carriage it for ourselves. (p. 15)Further, if reality is linked to mind-set and self-identity, then Dwecks (2006) work on fixed and growth mind-sets becomes more salient. Dweck purports that those of fixed mind-set believe their capabilities are already set whereas a growth mind-set is conducive to self-improvement through effort. Dweck suggests that a growth mind-set is not dismissive of innate abilities, recognising that although people may differ in every which way in thei r initial talents and aptitudes, interests or temperaments everyone can change and grow through application and experience (p. 12). Further, Dweck purports that those with fixed mind-sets oft miss opportunities for improvement and consistently underperform while those with a growth mind-set watch their abilities move ever upward.Cultivating Organisational Games-MakersOrganisational culture is one of the most important predictors of high levels of performance over time (Cameron et al, 2011) and for culture one should read people. Organisations that flourish have developed a culture of abundance (Cameron 2013) which builds the collective capabilities of all members. It is characterized by the presence of numerous positive energisers throughout the system, including embedded virtuous practices, adaptive learning, meaningfulness, profound purpose, engaged members and positive leadership. Various studies point to abundance culture and organisational success (Cameron, Mora, Leutscher Calaro 2011 Cameron Plews 2012)Achor (2013) uses the term franchising success identify something that is simple and easy to copy. Achor uses the example of the 10/5 principle, supplanted from the Ritz-Carlton hotel chain to an American hospital. This simple impression of smiling at anyone who comes within 10 feet and making eye contact and giving a positive greeting to anyone within 5 feet is cited as an example of franchising success. And while sceptics might point to the 10/5 principle is cosmetic, false or, indeed, overly American in tone, Achor reports a different reality. When the behaviour becomes communicable it changes the reality and the feeling of the hospital. Achor reports that staff were smiling and this was franchised to patients and visitors. Crucially, this new behaviour became normalised, embedded in the hospitals culture.It is difficult to find British examples. Although not examined academically, anecdotic evidence exists within the London 2012 Olympic games-m akers. Volunteering to give up their own time, with a clear vision to make London 2012 the best ever games, they are perhaps the outstanding British example of franchising positive affect.Positive Psychology The right skill for the wrong reasons?Reflecting on 5 years of study and winning the learning in the round, it is difficult not to have a nagging doubt about the upsurge of interest in the science of positive psychology. The demarcation imperative is strong and this may be the source of my doubt. It could be that positive psychology is the right philosophy but for the wrong reasons. Organisational behaviourists are using the science of happiness and well-being to create workplaces that are engaging and fun, where people can experience a sense of meaning and value. The underlying public sector mantra that lies cigaret the science is that by creating these conditions, employees will therefore work harder. In austere times, maintaining levels of service with fewer staff is the cost-efficient Utopia of squeezing more from less. And while this makes perfect sense at one level, treating people well because it is good for the bottom line is, perhaps, the wrong reason for treating them well.In the recommendations, I spoke of a more enlightened way of conducting organisational behaviour. Enlightened organisations may be the ones who take a leap of faith and conspire to treat employees well because that is absolutely the right thing to do.This research points to happiness being a conflux of genetics, circumstances and internal strategies. According to Lyubormirsky (2007), the circumstances element of the happiness pie is a rather unimportant 10%. Therefore, tweaking the structure, altering the appraisal system, or providing gym membership and a dress-down Friday, are all having a tiny effect on individual happiness. a good deal more salient are the mental habits that employees choose (or do not choose) to bring to work. This points to organisational culture sp reading in a more viral way, because happiness and its contagion is about sustaining new thinking and behaviours, rather than processes.Rather than command and control, this is more about influencing people to want to change. Statistical analysis suggests the data for this study is reliable. Thus, I can confidently state that a sense of personal choice stands as a central tenet of flourishing. The organisation may well engender this sense of personal choice if it is seen to be doing things for the right reasons. Therefore, the focus naturally shifts towards meaning. The H+ community feels a very strong sense of meaning and purpose which is reflected in flourishing behaviours. The hyper-dyadic nature of affective contagion means that other employees will catch the new feelings and behaviours. This points towards a paradigm shift away from culture change being a top down or even a bottom up process, towards an inside-out phenomenon.Trying clockThere is a dichotomy at the heart of pos itive psychology. The science is both supremely complex and effortlessly simple. The pig iron quotation that foretell the start of this chapter seems somewhat disingenuous towards the pig-iron worker. It is perfectly possible to couch the subject in such academic terms so as to lose the modal(a) worker. Yet, at its heart, the constituent parts of happiness remain simple enough for everyone to understand. The concept of consciously choosing a positive attitude and making an effort to do so seem simple enough. It may be the lack of cognisance that a choice is available or the subsequent effort involved in sustaining an H+ attitude that is more problematic.It may well be that some occupations are inherently more purposeful and carry greater meaning. However, this report suggests that if the aforesaid(prenominal) pig iron worker chooses to be positive and engages in positive mental strategies, if s/he can find meaning in their work and have challenging tasks, stretching personal goals and, moreover, if handling pig iron plays to their strengths, then engagement is more likely.In terms of context, this research project was closely cancelled on the grounds of right research, wrong time. The head of organisation B1, who turned out to be a strong champion of this research, stated somewhat sardonically, in a meeting prior to phase 1 This is an interesting time to be measuring motivation. Her point was that the challenges of the 2008 banking crisis and the subsequent knock-on effects of nonindulgence would make happiness and engagement more challenging than ever. Bearing in mind the finding that H+ employees deploy more strategies and work those strategies harder it could be that conducting this research in such challenging circumstances was exactly the right time.It could be that in trying times the key to flourishing is to try even harder.